Introduction to Neuroscience

The evolution of the brain began in relatively simple creatures, possibly for the purpose of coordinating digestion and other basic physiological processes. Hundreds of millions of years later, the brain evolved into the modern versions we see across the animal kingdom today. Scientists believe that humans and all other mammals evolved from fish, so by looking at the differences between human and fish brains, we can infer some of the evolutionary changes that occurred over those ~370 million years. Much of what makes our human brains unique appears to be in the cerebral cortex, though other brain structures are no doubt important in what makes us human. Finally, many of the quirks of our behavior and mental life, especially those surrounding sex and sex differences, can be explained partly by our evolutionary history. This video is a brief exploration of brain evolution. It addresses questions like, Why did the brain evolve? How did the brain change over evolutionary time? What makes the human brain unique? And what vestiges of evolution remain hidden in our modern minds? However, this video is ultimately incomplete. There are so many aspects of both brain and human evolution that I did not mention here or which I did not cover in detail. If you want to know more about this topic, I encourage you to check out the books, articles, and studies cited below. Need a quick primer on how evolution works? Check out this video: https://youtube.com/shorts/VnCRcNgM7Lk?feature=share Chapters: 00:00 The evolution of the brain began in creatures with simple nervous systems 01:21 Bodies evolved before brains, according to The Strange Order of Things, by Antonio Damasio 02:03 The first brains were like the enteric nervous system 02:30 Cnidarian nerve nets 03:00 Taylor Guthrie’s “Cellular Republic” 04:19 Comparing the brains of various species to human brains 05:13 Subcortical brain structures evolved before the cerebral cortex 05:44 Cortical columns in the neocortex and intelligence 06:40 Executive functions of the prefrontal cortex 07:25 David Badre on the evolution of cognitive control 09:27 The human brain is functionally holistic 09:50 Mark Humphries on the function of the cerebral cortex 11:48 Evolutionary psychology - examples of sex differences 14:18 The evolution of mental illness according to Bret Stetka 15:27 Conclusion and caveats 15:53 Thank you! Please like and subscribe! -- References: 1. Damasio, A. (2019). The strange order of things: Life, feeling, and the making of cultures. Vintage. 2. Arendt, D., Tosches, M. & Marlow, H. From nerve net to nerve ring, nerve cord and brain — evolution of the nervous system. Nat Rev Neurosci 17, 61–72 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn.2015.15 3. Dawkins, R. (2004). The Ancestors Tale: A Pilgrimage to the Dawn of Evolution. Houghton Mifflin. 4. Gafurov, D., & Gafurov, O. (2016). In MATEC Web of Conferences (Vol. 79, p. 01086). EDP Sciences. 5. Hawkins, J. (2021). A thousand brains: A new theory of intelligence. Basic Books. 6. Preuss, T. M., & Wise, S. P. (2022). Evolution of prefrontal cortex. Neuropsychopharmacology, 47(1), 3-19.v 7. Goetz, S. M., Weisfeld, G. Z., & Zilioli, S. (2019). Reproductive behavior in the human male. The Oxford Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology and Behavioral Endocrinology, 125-141. 8. Clutton-Brock, T. (2007). Sexual selection in males and females. Science, 318(5858), 1882-1885. 9. Stetka, B. (2021). A History of the Human Brain: From the Sea Sponge to CRISPR, how Our Brain Evolved. Timber Press. 10. Andrews, P. W., & Durisko, Z. (2017). The evolution of depressive phenotypes. The Oxford handbook of mood disorders, 24-36. Music: Through The Wormhole by Purrple Cat | https://purrplecat.com Music promoted by https://www.free-stock-music.com Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en_US Cyber Crime Story by | e s c p | https://escp-music.bandcamp.com Music promoted by https://www.free-stock-music.com Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Kinetics by | e s c p | https://escp-music.bandcamp.com Music promoted by https://www.free-stock-music.com Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Better Days by Purrple Cat | https://purrplecat.com Music promoted by https://www.free-stock-music.com Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en_US All 3D brain animations credit: Copyright © Society for Neuroscience (2017). Users may copy images and text, but must provide attribution to the Society for Neuroscience if an image and/or text is transmitted to another party, or if an image and/or text is used or cited in User’s work. -- All links: https://linktr.ee/senseofmind #howthebrainevolved #evolutionofthehumanbrain #howthebrainworks

An introduction to addiction and its relationship to dopamine in the brain. This level 3 (advanced difficulty) video is the same as the level 2 (intermediate) video, except this one has more information about D1/D2 dopamine receptors and their role in addiction. It also has a section that is not in the other videos that gives some useful tips on living your best life, based on what we know about dopamine neurobiology. If you'd like a shorter and less technical version of this topic, check out the other difficulty levels of this video: Level 1 (Beginner - 1 minute): https://youtu.be/XGKf-IPdsK0 Level 2 (Intermediate - 29 minutes): https://youtu.be/v18S3-pRQLw Note that this video relies heavily on my previous videos on dopamine. If you are interested in watching those before this one--which I highly recommend--you can find them here: https://youtube.com/playlist?list=PLC92ipyM9i9K7N6_UbRKR9lUfEnCuj00f Note: The videos I recommend watching are any one of the three titled "Dopamine, Motivation, and Reward (prediction error signaling)": https://youtube.com/playlist?list=PLC92ipyM9i9K0SI63Q4Hm2-C9jgSjYpS2 You can also find all of these videos on my Instagram page. Chapters: 00:00 How does the human brain become addicted to drugs? 01:57 This video is part of an introduction to neuroscience series. 02:16 PLEASE WATCH MY PREVIOUS VIDEOS ON DOPAMINE IF THIS VIDEO IS CONFUSING - (CARD) 04:15 What is addiction? 05:35 Prediction Error Signaling (Dopamine's main job) 07:15 What happens to animals that don't have dopamine? 08:20 How dopamine controls behavior and motivation - rewards and punishments 11:28 How the brain learns associations with rewards and punishments. 13:12 Synaptic plasticity involved in instrumental learning 14:00 How do addictions form in the brain? 16:37 How Cocaine Works (in the Brain) 18:44 Amphetamines mechanisms are more or less similar to cocaine's 19:17 A friend's story about cocaine vs. methamphetamine highs 20:57 Other drugs... 22:17 The "Comedown": Steep reductions in DA = aversive 23:19 Why don't drug users quit after the first dose? 23:55 Addictive drugs cause dramatic synaptic changes 24:35 Habitual drug-taking leads to shift in D1/D2 receptors 28:06 The spiral of addiction 28:50 Over time, drugs can become boring even while still addictive 30:40 If you need help call: 1-800-662-4357 (SAMHSA) 31:24 Wanting is not the same as liking 33:19 How to find a balance between "now" and "later" 35:19 PSA: Build your life on moral principles. 38:04 Thank you for watching! -- Connect with Sense of Mind on social media! Instagram: https://www.instagram.com/sense.ofmind/ Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/senseofmindshow For exclusive and early access to content, sign up for the newsletter: https://senseofmindshow.com/newsletter/ NOTE: THE FIRST OFFICIAL NEWSLETTER EMAIL WILL BE SENT ON FRIDAY, November 12th, 2021. -- Sources and Recommended Readings Wise, R. A., & Robble, M. A. (2020). Dopamine and addiction. Annual review of psychology, 71, 79-106. Nestler, E. J. (2021). Motivation, Reward, and Addictive States. In C. D. Salzman (Ed.), Principles of Neural Science (6th ed., pp. 1065–1078). essay, McGraw Hill. Banich, M. T., & Compton, R. J. (2018). Cognitive neuroscience. Chapter 1: Introduction to the Nervous system. Cambridge University Press. Lieberman, D. Z., & Long, M. E. (2018). The Molecule of More: How a Single Chemical in Your Brain Drives Love, Sex, and Creativity—and Will Determine the Fate of the Human Race. BenBella Books. Ikemoto, S., Yang, C., & Tan, A. (2015). Basal ganglia circuit loops, dopamine and motivation: a review and enquiry. Behavioural brain research, 290, 17-31. Berridge, K. C., & Kringelbach, M. L. (2016). 7 - From Pleasure to Happiness: ‘Liking’ and ‘Wanting’ in Mind and Brain. Handbook of Emotions, 133-145. -- Music Happy Electronic Beat | FLOWERS by Alex-Productions | https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCx0_... Music promoted by https://www.free-stock-music.com Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License https://creativecommons.org/licenses/...

An introduction to addiction and its relationship to dopamine in the brain. Level 1 This level 1 (beginner difficulty) video is a summary of these topics. If you'd like more information, check out one of the following: Level 2 (Intermediate - 29 minutes): https://youtu.be/v18S3-pRQLw Level 3 (Advanced - 40 minutes):https://youtu.be/EfmWE6shXHc Note that this video relies heavily on my previous videos on dopamine. If you are interested in watching those before this one--which I highly recommend--you can find them here: https://youtube.com/playlist?list=PLC92ipyM9i9K7N6_UbRKR9lUfEnCuj00f Note: The videos I recommend watching are any one of the three titled "Dopamine, Motivation, and Reward (prediction error signaling)": https://youtube.com/playlist?list=PLC92ipyM9i9K0SI63Q4Hm2-C9jgSjYpS2 You can also find all of these videos on my Instagram page. -- Connect with Sense of Mind on social media! Instagram: https://www.instagram.com/sense.ofmind/ Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/senseofmindshow For exclusive and early access to content, sign up for the newsletter: https://senseofmindshow.com/newsletter/ NOTE: THE FIRST OFFICIAL NEWSLETTER EMAIL WILL BE SENT ON FRIDAY, November 12th, 2021. -- Sources and Recommended Readings Wise, R. A., & Robble, M. A. (2020). Dopamine and addiction. Annual review of psychology, 71, 79-106. Nestler, E. J. (2021). Motivation, Reward, and Addictive States. In C. D. Salzman (Ed.), Principles of Neural Science (6th ed., pp. 1065–1078). essay, McGraw Hill. Banich, M. T., & Compton, R. J. (2018). Cognitive neuroscience. Chapter 1: Introduction to the Nervous system. Cambridge University Press. Lieberman, D. Z., & Long, M. E. (2018). The Molecule of More: How a Single Chemical in Your Brain Drives Love, Sex, and Creativity—and Will Determine the Fate of the Human Race. BenBella Books. Ikemoto, S., Yang, C., & Tan, A. (2015). Basal ganglia circuit loops, dopamine and motivation: a review and enquiry. Behavioural brain research, 290, 17-31. Berridge, K. C., & Kringelbach, M. L. (2016). 7 - From Pleasure to Happiness: ‘Liking’ and ‘Wanting’ in Mind and Brain. Handbook of Emotions, 133-145. -- Music Happy Electronic Beat | FLOWERS by Alex-Productions | https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCx0_... Music promoted by https://www.free-stock-music.com Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License https://creativecommons.org/licenses/...

An introduction to addiction and its relationship to dopamine in the brain. This level 2 (intermediate difficulty) video is the same as level 3, except that level 3 has more information on D1/D2 receptors and their relation to addiction. It also has a section about living your best life in light of what we know about dopamine. Note that this video relies heavily on my previous videos on dopamine. If you are interested in watching those before this one--which I highly recommend--you can find them here: https://youtube.com/playlist?list=PLC92ipyM9i9K7N6_UbRKR9lUfEnCuj00f Note: The videos I recommend watching are any one of the three titled "Dopamine, Motivation, and Reward (prediction error signaling)": https://youtube.com/playlist?list=PLC92ipyM9i9K0SI63Q4Hm2-C9jgSjYpS2 If you'd like either a more advanced and longer version or a quick summary, check out the other difficulty levels of this video: Level 1 (beginner - 1 minute):https://youtu.be/XGKf-IPdsK0 Level 3 (Advanced - 40 minutes):https://youtu.be/EfmWE6shXHc (You can also find all of these videos on my Instagram page.) -- Chapters: 00:00 How does the human brain become addicted to drugs? 01:57 This video is part of an introduction to neuroscience series. 02:16 PLEASE WATCH MY PREVIOUS VIDEOS ON DOPAMINE IF THIS VIDEO IS CONFUSING - (CARD) 04:15 What is addiction? 05:35 Prediction Error Signaling (Dopamine's main job) 07:15 What happens to animals that don't have dopamine? 08:20 How dopamine controls behavior and motivation - rewards and punishments 11:28 How the brain learns associations with rewards and punishments. 13:12 Synaptic plasticity involved in instrumental learning 14:00 How do addictions form in the brain? 16:37 How Cocaine Works (in the Brain) 18:44 Amphetamines mechanisms are more or less similar to cocaine's 19:17 A friend's story about cocaine vs. methamphetamine highs 20:57 Other drugs... 22:17 The "Comedown": Steep reductions in DA = aversive 23:19 Why don't drug users quit after the first dose? 23:55 Addictive drugs cause dramatic synaptic changes 24:40 Habitual drug-taking leads to shift in D1/D2 receptors 25:25 The spiral of addiction 26:09 Over time, drugs can become boring even while still addictive 27:22 Thank you for watching! -- Connect with Sense of Mind on social media! Instagram: https://www.instagram.com/sense.ofmind/ Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/senseofmindshow For exclusive and early access to content, sign up for the newsletter: https://senseofmindshow.com/newsletter/ NOTE: THE FIRST OFFICIAL NEWSLETTER EMAIL WILL BE SENT ON FRIDAY, November 12th, 2021. -- Sources and Recommended Readings Wise, R. A., & Robble, M. A. (2020). Dopamine and addiction. Annual review of psychology, 71, 79-106. Nestler, E. J. (2021). Motivation, Reward, and Addictive States. In C. D. Salzman (Ed.), Principles of Neural Science (6th ed., pp. 1065–1078). essay, McGraw Hill. Banich, M. T., & Compton, R. J. (2018). Cognitive neuroscience. Chapter 1: Introduction to the Nervous system. Cambridge University Press. Lieberman, D. Z., & Long, M. E. (2018). The Molecule of More: How a Single Chemical in Your Brain Drives Love, Sex, and Creativity—and Will Determine the Fate of the Human Race. BenBella Books. Ikemoto, S., Yang, C., & Tan, A. (2015). Basal ganglia circuit loops, dopamine and motivation: a review and enquiry. Behavioural brain research, 290, 17-31. Berridge, K. C., & Kringelbach, M. L. (2016). 7 - From Pleasure to Happiness: ‘Liking’ and ‘Wanting’ in Mind and Brain. Handbook of Emotions, 133-145. -- Music Happy Electronic Beat | FLOWERS by Alex-Productions | https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCx0_... Music promoted by https://www.free-stock-music.com Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License https://creativecommons.org/licenses/...

This video provides an introduction to the dopamine reward and motivation system. In this advanced version (see below for different video duration and level of difficulty on this same topic), I will also cover how dopamine is involved in dread (as well as desire) and avoidance, and finally a tentative model of how all this actually works in the brain. If you'd like a shorter and less technical version of this topic, check out the other difficulty levels of this video: Level 1 (Beginner - 1 minute): https://youtu.be/gvCzfSssmHc Level 2 (Intermediate - 20 minutes): https://youtu.be/erRxnc5cEP0 -- Chapters: 00:00 Everything you do requires motivation and reward (or punishment) 00:45 Need an introduciton to dopamine? 00:57 This video is part of an ongoing dopamine mini series 02:08 This video is also part of a neuroscience series 04:00 I'm Andrew, and this is Sense of Mind. Please like and follow! 05:17 What is a "motivational state"? 07:11 What is a "reward"? (in psychology and neuroscience) 08:35 Important brain regions for reward and motivation. 09:28 Dopamine is NOT all about pleasure. 10:30 Dopamine's main function: Prediciton Error Signaling 12:12 Unexpected reward increases dopaminergic firing in reward regions 13:20 Expected rewards trigger dopaminergic firing only during the cue 14:40 Expected reward doesn't occur? Dramatic decrease in dopaminergic firing. 16:23 Expected reward over long period of time causes no increase in dopamine. 18:31 Dopamine is not only about apporach and reward, but also avoidance and dread. 23:50 Tentative, simplified model of dopaminergic reward circuitry in the brain 25:10 Inhibiting the ventral pallidum 26:22 Ventral pallidum is normally inhibiting thalamo-cortical circuits 29:00 Release of inhibition of thalamo-cortical circuits allows for goal directed behavior through the cortex and basal ganglia. 32:25 We will be going deeper into all of this in future videos, so stay tuned! 32:50 Thank you so much for watching! -- Connect with Sense of Mind on social media! Instagram: https://www.instagram.com/sense.ofmind/ Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/senseofmindshow For exclusive and early access to content, sign up for the newsletter: https://senseofmindshow.com/newsletter/ NOTE: THE FIRST OFFICIAL NEWSLETTER EMAIL WILL BE SENT ON FRIDAY, OCTOBER 22nd, 2021. -- Sources and Recommended Readings: Nestler, E. J. (2021). Motivation, Reward, and Addictive States. In C. D. Salzman (Ed.), Principles of Neural Science (6th ed., pp. 1065–1078). essay, McGraw Hill. Banich, M. T., & Compton, R. J. (2018). Cognitive neuroscience. Chapter 1: Introduction to the Nervous system. Cambridge University Press. Lieberman, D. Z., & Long, M. E. (2018). The Molecule of More: How a Single Chemical in Your Brain Drives Love, Sex, and Creativity—and Will Determine the Fate of the Human Race. BenBella Books. Ikemoto, S., Yang, C., & Tan, A. (2015). Basal ganglia circuit loops, dopamine and motivation: a review and enquiry. Behavioural brain research, 290, 17-31. Berridge, K. C., & Kringelbach, M. L. (2016). 7 - From Pleasure to Happiness: ‘Liking’ and ‘Wanting’ in Mind and Brain. Handbook of Emotions, 133-145. -- Music: Happy Electronic Beat | FLOWERS by Alex-Productions | https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCx0_... Music promoted by https://www.free-stock-music.com Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License https://creativecommons.org/licenses/... -- Stock Footage Monkey Recieving a Banana: Video by Alv Seg from Pexels https://www.pexels.com/video/person-giving-banana-to-a-monkey-6770945/ Monkey Nursing Its Baby Video by Mikhail Nilov from Pexels https://www.pexels.com/video/monkey-nursing-its-baby-7710095/ Man raising hands at computer Video by Anna Nekrashevich from Pexels https://www.pexels.com/video/marketing-businessman- person-laptop-6794223/

This video provides an introduction to the dopamine reward and motivation system. If you'd like either a more advanced and longer version or a quick summary, check out the other difficulty levels of this video: Level 1 (beginner - 1 minute): https://youtu.be/gvCzfSssmHc Level 3 (Advanced - 35 minutes): https://youtu.be/8TVimO14sPw -- Chapters: 00:00 Everything you do requires motivation and reward (or punishment) 00:45 Need an introduciton to dopamine? 00:57 This video is part of an ongoing dopamine mini series 02:03 This video is also part of a neuroscience series 04:00 I'm Andrew, and this is Sense of Mind. Please like and follow! 05:17 What is a "motivational state"? 07:11 What is a "reward"? (in psychology and neuroscience) 08:35 Important brain regions for reward and motivation. 09:28 Dopamine is NOT all about pleasure. 10:30 Dopamine's main function: Prediciton Error Signaling 12:12 Unexpected reward increases dopaminergic firing in reward regions 13:20 Expected rewards trigger dopaminergic firing only during the cue 14:40 Expected reward doesn't occur? Dramatic decrease in dopaminergic firing. 16:23 Expected reward over long period of time causes no increase in dopamine. 18:27 We will be going deeper into all of this in future videos, so stay tuned! 19:05 Thank you so much for watching! -- Connect with Sense of Mind on social media! Instagram: https://www.instagram.com/sense.ofmind/ Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/senseofmindshow For exclusive and early access to content, sign up for the newsletter: https://senseofmindshow.com/newsletter/ NOTE: THE FIRST OFFICIAL NEWSLETTER EMAIL WILL BE SENT ON FRIDAY, OCTOBER 22nd, 2021. -- Sources and Recommended Readings: Nestler, E. J. (2021). Motivation, Reward, and Addictive States. In C. D. Salzman (Ed.), Principles of Neural Science (6th ed., pp. 1065–1078). essay, McGraw Hill. Banich, M. T., & Compton, R. J. (2018). Cognitive neuroscience. Chapter 1: Introduction to the Nervous system. Cambridge University Press. Lieberman, D. Z., & Long, M. E. (2018). The Molecule of More: How a Single Chemical in Your Brain Drives Love, Sex, and Creativity—and Will Determine the Fate of the Human Race. BenBella Books. Ikemoto, S., Yang, C., & Tan, A. (2015). Basal ganglia circuit loops, dopamine and motivation: a review and enquiry. Behavioural brain research, 290, 17-31. Berridge, K. C., & Kringelbach, M. L. (2016). 7 - From Pleasure to Happiness: ‘Liking’ and ‘Wanting’ in Mind and Brain. Handbook of Emotions, 133-145. -- Music: Happy Electronic Beat | FLOWERS by Alex-Productions | https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCx0_... Music promoted by https://www.free-stock-music.com Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License https://creativecommons.org/licenses/... -- Stock Footage Monkey Recieving a Banana: Video by Alv Seg from Pexels https://www.pexels.com/video/person-giving-banana-to-a-monkey-6770945/ Monkey Nursing Its Baby Video by Mikhail Nilov from Pexels https://www.pexels.com/video/monkey-nursing-its-baby-7710095/ Man raising hands at computer Video by Anna Nekrashevich from Pexels https://www.pexels.com/video/marketing-businessman- person-laptop-6794223/

This video provides a (very brief!) introduction to the dopamine reward and motivation system. If you'd like a longer and more technical version of this topic, check out the other difficulty levels of this video: Level 3 (Advanced - 35 minutes): https://youtu.be/8TVimO14sPw Level 2 (Intermediate - 20 minutes): https://youtu.be/erRxnc5cEP0 -- Connect with Sense of Mind on social media! Instagram: https://www.instagram.com/sense.ofmind/ Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/senseofmindshow For exclusive and early access to content, sign up for the newsletter: https://senseofmindshow.com/newsletter/ NOTE: THE FIRST OFFICIAL NEWSLETTER EMAIL WILL BE SENT ON FRIDAY, OCTOBER 22nd, 2021. -- Sources and Recommended Readings: Nestler, E. J. (2021). Motivation, Reward, and Addictive States. In C. D. Salzman (Ed.), Principles of Neural Science (6th ed., pp. 1065–1078). essay, McGraw Hill. Banich, M. T., & Compton, R. J. (2018). Cognitive neuroscience. Chapter 1: Introduction to the Nervous system. Cambridge University Press. Lieberman, D. Z., & Long, M. E. (2018). The Molecule of More: How a Single Chemical in Your Brain Drives Love, Sex, and Creativity—and Will Determine the Fate of the Human Race. BenBella Books. Ikemoto, S., Yang, C., & Tan, A. (2015). Basal ganglia circuit loops, dopamine and motivation: a review and enquiry. Behavioural brain research, 290, 17-31. Berridge, K. C., & Kringelbach, M. L. (2016). 7 - From Pleasure to Happiness: ‘Liking’ and ‘Wanting’ in Mind and Brain. Handbook of Emotions, 133-145. -- Music: Happy Electronic Beat | FLOWERS by Alex-Productions | https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCx0_... Music promoted by https://www.free-stock-music.com Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License https://creativecommons.org/licenses/... -- Stock Footage Monkey Recieving a Banana: Video by Alv Seg from Pexels https://www.pexels.com/video/person-giving-banana-to-a-monkey-6770945/ Monkey Nursing Its Baby Video by Mikhail Nilov from Pexels https://www.pexels.com/video/monkey-nursing-its-baby-7710095/ Man raising hands at computer Video by Anna Nekrashevich from Pexels https://www.pexels.com/video/marketing-businessman- person-laptop-6794223/